Conjunctions

Go to The Guide to Grammar and Writing section on Conjunctions.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses. There are three kinds of conjunctions: 

coordinating conjunctions

correlative conjunctions

subordinating conjunctions 

They all have the same forms wherever they appear in sentences.

Conjunctions both join elements within sentences and join entire sentences to produce more complicated sentences. Writing that contains few conjunctions tends to be choppy and vague. By using conjunctions skillfully, you can make your prose easier to read because conjunctions suggest relationships between ideas and clarify sequences of thought.   

Here are some rules that you may find helpful:

Using coordinating conjunctions  

Using coordinating conjunctions to join words and phrases

Writing compound sentences

Understanding correlative conjunctions

Using correlative conjunctions to combine sentences

Using neither . . . nor

Using parallel form with coordinating conjunctions

Using parallel form with correlative conjunctions

Understanding subordinating conjunctions

Common subordinating conjunctions

Relative pronouns

Writing complex sentences

Adjective clause

Adverb clause

Noun clause

Improving style by using subordinating conjunctions

Try it out

Review

Using coordinating conjunctions

There are seven coordinating conjunctions:

and

but

or

nor

yet

for

so

And , but, and or are the most common of the coordinating conjunctions. They connect words, phrases, and clauses of roughly equal importance. They can join nouns, pronouns, verbs, verbals, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, clauses, and whole sentences. Nor is similar to or, but it is used only in negative sentences. Yet does not usually join nouns or pronouns but can be used in all other situations that require coordinating conjunctions. For and so are more restricted; when they function as coordinating conjunctions, they join simple sentences but not words and phrases.

Back to menu

Using coordinating conjunctions to join words and phrases

And, but, and or signal basic connections between words and phrases. And, meaning “in addition to,” acts like a plus sign:

    We ate apples and pears.

    It was a picture of a huge elephant and a tiny mouse.

    Jacy asked me to come and look.

But, meaning “however,’ introduces an exception or an apparent contradiction:

    Everyone but I came to the party by car.

    Manuel was intelligent but careless.

    You spoke quickly but clearly.

Or offers alternatives (that is, it says one of two things is possible, but not necessarily both):

    Elliott or Olivia will definitely come.

    Marta was late or absent every day last week.

    Did we do well or poorly on the exam?

Nor is the negative form of or. It is used only in negative sentences. It must follow grammatically negative words such as no, not, never, and neither:

    I never eat snacks nor desserts.

Yet means “nevertheless”:

    Sarah did the job rapidly yet correctly.

    I recognize yet neglect my body’s need for physical exercise. 

Back to menu

Writing compound sentences

All the coordinating conjunctions, including for and so, connect simple sentences to form larger sentence units. A sentence made up of two simple sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction is called a compound sentence. Simple sentences within compound sentences are called independent sentences.

For means “because” and connects two sentences when the second sentence explains the reason for an event or circumstance described in the first:

independent clause                                                  independent clause

The rain turned to snow after midnight, for a cold front had moved in from the north.

(For can also be a preposition, as in “for my mother.”)

So means “therefore” and is used when the second sentence describes the result of an action or circumstance mentioned in the first sentence:

independent clause               independent clause

Fred was more than an hour late, so I decided to go by myself.

When two simple sentences are connected by a coordinating conjunction to form a compound sentence, a comma is used after the first sentence and immediately before the conjunction:

independent clause                                                                 independent clause

    The committee’s work was completed in less than a week, and its report was submitted to the governor by the first of the month.

When the two sentences are short, the comma may be omitted:

    It started to rain and I ran for cover.

Back to menu

Understanding correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are paired connecting words that link words, phrases, and sentences. Below is a list of correlative conjunctions:

both . . . and

either . . . or

neither . . . nor

whether . . . or

not only . . . but also

The following examples show how correlative conjunctions work in the sentences:

    I have neither a picture of my great grandmother nor any information about her life.

    Mr. Cabalo expects either a written report or an oral presentation.

The words that make up correlative conjunctions can also be used independently as other parts of speech:

              coordinating conjunction

I hit a single and a double in the game yesterday.

pronoun

Both of my brothers went to the game.

Back to menu

Using correlative conjunctions to combine sentences

Correlative conjunctions can link independent clauses to form longer sentences. Two clauses linked by either . . . or and whether . . . or retain their normal word order:

          independent clause                       independent clause

    Either you come with me right now or I’ll go alone.

                independent clause                           independent clause

    I don’t care whether you come along or you don’t.

When not only . . . but also is used to link shorter sentences, not only can follow the subject, and but and also can be separated:

    Carmella not only bought an exercise bicycle, but she also purchased a treadmill.

Another way to express this idea is to use the auxiliary verb do:

    Not only did Carmella but an exercise bicycle but she also purchased a treadmill.

Back to menu

Using neither . . . nor

When two clauses are linked by neither . . . nor, the word order changes slightly. If neither and nor appear before the subjects of their clauses, the subjects appear after auxiliary verbs:

    Neither do I want to go myself, nor do I want you to go.

If neither appears after the subject of its clause, the auxiliary verb comes before the subject only in the second clause:

    I neither wanted to go myself, nor do I want you to go,

Using parallel form with coordinating and correlative conjunctions

When two or more items in a list are in the same grammatical form, they are said to be parallel. Using parallel form signals readers that the items listed are about equally important.

Back to menu

Using parallel form with coordinating conjunctions

The elements joined by coordinating conjunctions should be grammatically identical (two nouns, two noun phrases, two verbs, two verbals, two clauses, and so on):

     noun              noun

    Inez and Carlotta are my sisters.

    gerund phrase                    gerund phrase

    I would enjoy seeing a movie or going shopping.

independent clause                       independent clause

    I had it a minute ago, yet now it’s disappeared.

If more items were added to any of the examples, they too would need to be in the same grammatical form.

An exception to the requirement that items connected by coordinating conjunctions should be parallel is that and, but, or, and nor can connect nouns and noun phrases with pronouns:

    John and I are coming together.

    Everyone but Charlie is here now,

    She or her older sister will write the report.

    Tell Bill I never want to see him nor his cousin again.

Back to menu

Using parallel form with correlative conjunctions

Sentence elements linked by correlative conjunctions should also be parallel. In the following sentence the two items “physical benefits” and “it can benefit people spiritually,” linked by correlative conjunctions, are not parallel because the first one is a phrase and the second one is a clause:

         phrase                                      clause

NOT: Bathing in the Ganges is believed to have not only physical benefits but also it can benefit people spiritually.

Lining up two items makes it easier to see that they are not in balance:

    not only physical benefits

    but also it can benefit people spiritually,

A version of the sentence that is properly parallel is easier to understand and remember:

    Bathing in the Ganges is believed to have not only physical benefits but also spiritual ones.

Back to menu

Understanding subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions join subordinate (dependent) clauses to main (independent) clauses to form complex sentences. Subordinating conjunctions can clarify time sequences, express possibilities, compare ideas, add information on location and manner, and explain cause-and-effect relationships.

Some coordinating and subordinating conjunctions are equivalent in meaning (for example, for and because mean about the same thing). On the whole, however, subordinating conjunctions express more complicated relationships than coordinating conjunctions do.

Back to menu

Common subordinating conjunctions

Below is a list of the most common subordinating conjunctions grouped according to their meanings:

Common subordinating conjunctions

Time

after                 once                 when                as                     till                     whenever

before              until                  while

Possibility

as if                  whether            unless               as though  if                      provided (that)

Comparison and Contrast

although            than                  though

Manner and Location

how                 where               wherever

Cause and Effect

because            whereas           why                  since

Back to menu

Relative pronouns

A relative pronoun introduces one kind of subordinate clause, called a relative clause. Relative pronouns act as subordinating conjunctions:

relative clause

    The woman who called me last night is my sister.

Relative clauses can function as nouns or adjectives. Below is a list of relative pronouns:

who (who – object case, whose – possessive case)

whoever (whomever – object)

that

which

what

whatever

whichever

Back to menu

Writing complex sentences

Two closely connected ideas can be expressed in two separate sentences:

    It was raining.

    We called off the block party.

The two ideas can also be connected by a coordinating conjunction, producing a compound sentence:

independent clause                   independent clause

It was raining, so we called off the block party.

But there is another way of showing the relationship between the two ideas. One of the two can be subordinated to the other:

dependent (subordinate) clause          independent (main) clause

    Because it was raining, we called off the block party.

Of the two ideas, the one that can best stand alone is “We called off the block party.” The fact that it was raining provides the reason for calling it off, and the subordinating conjunction because introduces this kind of explanation. Together, the subordinate clause and the main clause form a complex sentence. A complex sentence is a sentence consisting of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

A clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction can appear within the main clause of a sentence as well as either before or after it. Usually the portion of the subordinate clause makes no difference to the meaning of the sentence. For example, the two sentences below mean about the same thing:

                                            subordinate clause                                                                            main clause

    Since George’s new computer game came in the mail last week, he has come 

out of his room only for trips to the refrigerator.

                        main clause                                                                                   subordinate clause  

    George has come out of his room only for trips to the refrigerator since his new computer game came in the mail last week.

When the subordinate clause comes first, the division between the two clauses is marked by a comma. No punctuation is used between the main clause and the subordinate clause when the main clause comes first.

Back to menu

Adjective clause

Since a relative clause usually functions as an adjective to describe a noun or pronoun in the main clause, it often appears in the middle of the main clause (as near as possible to the word it describes):

relative clause

    The people who came to dinner last night left their umbrella behind. 

In this sentence the relative clause “who came to dinner last night” describes the noun people. Clauses that function in sentences as adjectives are called adjective clauses.

Restrictive clauses. Sometimes an adjective clause provides information that is needed to identify the person or thing referred to in the main clause:

    restrictive adjective clause

    The players who do not know the rules should not criticize the referees.

According to this sentence, only some players do not know the rules; they are the ones who should not criticize the referees. The adjective clause ”who do not know the rules” not only describes the noun players but specifies which of the players the writer means. Adjective causes that provide information needed to identify the nouns or noun substitutes they modify are called restrictive clauses.

Nonrestrictive clauses. Some adjective clauses, on the other hand, are not needed to identify the person or thing mentioned in the main clause:

   nonrestrictive adjective clause

    The players, who do not know the rules, should not criticize the referees.

This sentence asserts that none of the players knows the rules; consequently, none of them should criticize the referees. Adjective clauses providing additional details not necessary for identification are called nonrestrictive clauses.

Nonrestrictive clauses are marked off by commas from the rest of the sentence; restrictive clauses are not.

That and which. The relative pronouns that and which both refer to things. In restrictive clauses, either that or which can be used:

                        restrictive clause

The necktie that/which I wear to weddings and funerals is purple with green dots.

In this sentence no commas are needed since the relative clause is necessary to identify the necktie the writer means. However, that should not be used in nonrestrictive clauses:

NOT: My only necktie, that I wear to weddings and funerals, is purple with green dots.

Here the clause “that I wear only to weddings and funerals” is nonrestrictive because it is not needed to identify the necktie (the writer has only one). In this sentence, which is the correct relative pronoun to use:

nonrestrictive clause

    My only necktie, which I wear to weddings and funerals, is purple with green dots.

A good rule to remember is that relative clauses beginning with that are always restrictive, so they are not marked off by commas.

Back to menu

Adverb clause

Many subordinate clauses function as adverbs to modify entire main clauses. They are called adverb clauses:

adverb clause

After we find our seats, we’ll ask the conductor when the train arrives in St. Louis.

In this sentence the subordinate clause “After we find our seats” acts as an adverb to answer the question “When?”

Adverb clauses also answer other questions, such as “How?” “Where?” and “Why?” as in the following sentences:

    Shane acts as if he doesn’t remember going to school with me.

    I asked for help wherever I could.

    Linda got the job because she was the best-qualified applicant.

Back to menu

Noun clause

Subordinate clauses that function as nouns appear in sentences as subjects, objects, and complements, just as other nouns do. These clauses are known as noun clauses. In the following sentence, a subordinate clause is the subject:

noun clause

    What I wanted for my birthday was a new radio.

Here the subordinate clause “What I wanted for my birthday” is the subject of the verb was. It fits the definition of a clause since it has a subject (I) and a verb (wanted). The main clause of the sentence has a verb of its own (was), but its subject is the relative clause itself. The sentence is actually a combination of two simpler sentences:

    I wanted a present for my birthday.

    It was a new radio.

In the complex sentence, the noun phrase a present is replaced by a relative pronoun (what) and the pronoun it of the second sentence is replaced by the first sentence.

Noun clauses can also function as objects and complements:

direct object

    As object: I got what I wanted for my birthday.

     subject complement

    As complement: The present was what I wanted.

A single subordinating conjunction can introduce clauses that function as nouns, adjectives or adverbs:

         noun clause

    I know where I’m going.

adjective clause

    The building where Mom used to work is on Pine Street.

adverb clause

    Avi found his keys where he left them.

Back to menu

Improving style by using subordinating conjunctions

One way to make your writing interesting is to use a variety of sentence types. Short, simple sentences can be dramatic, focusing readers’ attention or speeding up the pace of your writing. Longer sentences can slow the pace of your writing, making it seem more thoughtful. Too many sentences of any one type in a row, however, can be monotonous, so make an effort to vary your sentences.

A number of short, simple sentences in a row can make prose seem choppy and immature. On the other hand, a series of compound sentences may be uninteresting because each presents two ideas side by side without suggesting which of the two is more important. However, a complex sentence, which also presents two ideas, contains the additional feature that the more important the idea is emphasized and the less important idea is subordinated to it. If you are dissatisfied with the style of something you have written, consider changing some simple and compound sentences into complex ones.

Compare the two sentences below:

independent clause                                             independent clause

    Compound: The long day was finally over, and I was able to relax for the first time in nearly eighteen hours.

subordinate clause                                                     main clause

    Complex; When the long day was finally over, I was able to relax for the first time in nearly eighteen hours.

Here, the second version is better since the subordinating conjunction “When” clarifies the relationships between the events described in it

Back to menu

Try it out

Short, choppy sentences can be distracting to your readers. To eliminate choppiness, try using coordinating and subordinating conjunctions to combine short sentences and to clarify the connections between ideas. Adding conjunctions should make your writing easier and more interesting to read. Compare the following choppy, disconnected passage to the improved version which follows it:

A hurricane is a gigantic weather system. It is dangerous. A hurricane is the most destructive storm on earth. In a hurricane winds can exceed 155 miles an hour. The winds can topple trees. The winds can rip roofs and doors off houses. The winds can flatten small buildings. A hurricane has enormous power. It can toss trees through the walls of buildings. It can drive splinters of wood through sheet metal.

Adding coordinating and subordinating conjunctions to combine sentences results in the following improved version of the same passage:

 A hurricane, which is a gigantic, dangerous weather system, is the most destructive storm on earth. In a hurricane, winds that can exceed 155 miles an hour topple trees, rip roofs and doors off houses, and flatten small buildings. The enormous power of a hurricane can toss trees through the walls of buildings and drive splinters of wood through sheet metal.

Now, choose a passage from your own writing in which short sentences give a choppy, disjointed impression. To improve the passage, combine sentences with conjunctions that provide smooth, logical connections between your ideas.

Back to menu

Review

Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses.

Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses of roughly equal importance.

When a coordinating conjunction is used to connect two sentences, the result is a compound sentence.

Correlative conjunctions are paired connecting words that link words, phrases, and clauses.

When items in lists are joined by coordinating or correlative conjunctions, the items should be parallel, which means they should all be in the same grammatical form.

Subordinating conjunctions join dependent clauses to independent clauses.

A relative pronoun acts as a subordinating conjunction to introduce one kind of subordinate clause, a relative clause.

A complex sentence is a sentence consisting of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

A clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction can appear within the main clause of a sentence, before it or after it.

Subordinate clauses can function in sentences as adjectives, adverbs or nouns.

Adjective clauses that provide information needed to identify a person or thing are restrictive clauses. They are not set off by commas.

Adjective clauses that provide information not needed to identify a person or thing are nonrestrictive clauses. They are set off by commas.

Using a variety of sentence types improves sentence style.

Back to menu

Return back to Grammar Rules page.