Glossary
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comparative form of an adjective or adverb
An absolute phrase is a group of words that modifies an entire sentence rather than a specific word in a sentence. Back to top
Abstract nouns name things that cannot be perceived with the senses. Democracy and love are examples of abstract nouns. Back to top
The active voice is a way of expressing an idea in which the performer of the action is the subject of the verb. “I hit a stop sign” is in the active voice. Back to top
Adjective clauses are subordinate clauses (groups of words containing subjects and predicates) that function in sentences as adjectives. Back to top
Adjectives are words that describe (modify) nouns and pronouns. Back to top
Adverb clauses are subordinate clauses (groups of words containing subjects and predicates) that function in sentences as adverbs. Back to top
Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, verbals, and whole sentences. Adverbs answer questions such as “How?” “When?” and “Where?” They often end in –ly. Back to top
Agreement is the correspondence in person and number between subjects and verbs and the correspondence in person, number, and gender between pronouns and their antecedents. For example, if a pronoun’s antecedent is singular and masculine, the pronoun must be singular and the masculine in order to agree with it. Back to top
Antecedents are the words to which pronouns refer. Back to top
Appositives are nouns, noun phrases or adjectives which immediately follow nouns or nounlike elements and rename or identify the same people of things In “My sister, Luella Sanders,” Luella Sanders is an appositive. Back to top
Articles introduce nouns. The is the definite article and a and an are the indefinite articles. Back to top
Auxiliary or helping verbs are verbs that do not appear alone in sentences but always accompany one or more other verbs. Examples of auxiliary verbs are be, can, have, may, should, and might. Auxiliary verbs combine with basic forms of verbs, present participles, and past participles to form verb phrases. Back to top
Basic forms of verbs are the forms verbs are listed under in dictionaries. Walk is an example of a basic form of a verb Back to top
Cardinal numbers are numbers used as adjectives, such as three in “three oranges.” Cardinal numbers answer the question “How many?” Back to top
Case is the classification of pronouns and nouns according to whether they are subjects or objects or show possession. Back to top
Clauses are groups of words that contain subjects and predicates. Back to top
Collective nouns are words that name groups considered as wholes. Family and class are examples of collective nouns. Back to top
A comma splice is a type of run-on sentence in which two independent clauses (two separate sentences) are incorrectly linked by comma. Back to top
Common nouns are words that name any, some or all members of groups. All nouns that are not proper nouns are classified as common nouns. Back to top
A comparative form of an adjective or adverb, such as larger or more easily, is used to show that one person or thing has more of some quality than another. Back to top
A complement is a word or phrase that completes the meaning of another word. Sentences can have subject complements or object complements. Back to top
Complete sentences include simple subjects and all the words that modify them. Back to top
A complex sentence is a sentence consisting of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. Back to top
A compound adjective is made up of two or more words that form a unit describing one noun or pronoun. The words in the group may belong to any part of speech. When a compound adjective appears before the word it describes, a hyphen is usually used between the words of the compound. In “clear-cut objective,” clear-cut is a compound adjective. Back to top
A compound noun is a combination of two or more words that form a new word or phrase functioning as a single noun. Ice cream is an example of a compound noun. Back to top
Compound predicates are phrases made up of prepositions and other words. They function in the same way as other prepositions do to connect nouns, pronouns, and nounlike elements to other words in sentences and indicate the relationships between them. According to, except for, and instead of are examples of compound prepositions. Back to top
A compound sentence is a single sentence made up of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction. Back to top
A compound subject contains two words, phrases or clauses which are both subjects of a single verb. Back to top
A compound-complex sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Back to top
Concrete nouns are words naming things that can be perceived with the senses. Table and bottle are examples of concrete nouns. Back to top
The conditional verb forms are the auxiliary verbs would and could. They tell what would be true in imagined situations: “I would like to live in Hawaii”; “I wish I could remember Tonya’s telephone number.” Back to top
Conjunctions are words that connect other words, phrases, and clauses. There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions. Back to top
A conjunctive adverb is a word that indicates the relationship between ideas but that does not connect one independent clause to another to form a complete sentence. However, meanwhile, and therefore are examples of conjunctive adverbs. Back to top
A contraction is a combination of two words in which an apostrophe marks the place of one or more omitted letters. A pronoun often forms part of a contraction, as in it’s (“it is”). Back to top
Coordinate adjectives are two or more adjectives in
a row that describe the same word and that can be reversed without seeming
awkward. In “competent, enthusiastic staff” competent
and enthusiastic are coordinate
adjectives.
Coordinating conjunctions are words that connect other words, phrases, and clauses of roughly equal importance. And, but, or, nor, yet, for, and so are the coordinating adjectives. Back to top
Correlative conjunctions are paired connecting words that link words, phrases, and clauses. The correlative conjunctions are both . . . and, either . . . or, neither . . . nor, whether . . . or, and not only . . . but also. Back to top
Count nouns are words that name things that can be counted, at least in theory. Cup is an example of a count noun. Back to top
A dangling participial phrase is a participial phrase modifying a word that does not appear in the same sentence as the participial phrase. This error can be corrected by adding the missing word to the sentence. Back to top
Declarative sentences are sentences that make statements. Back to top
The definite article is the. Back to top
The demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these, and those. They point out people and things. Back to top
Dependent clauses are groups of words that contain
subjects and predicates but cannot stand alone as sentences.
A direct object names the person, thing, or idea directly acted upon by the action described by a verb. Back to top
A double negative is the use of two negative words when one of them is unnecessary. “I don’t have no money” is an example of a double negative. Back to top
Exclamatory sentences are sentences that express
emotions. They end in exclamation points.
Feminine gender is the classification of pronouns (and a few nouns) that refer only to females. The pronoun she refers only to a female person or animal, so it is feminine. A few objects, such as ships, are sometimes considered to be feminine. Back to top
A finite verb is any verb that functions as the main
verb of a sentence.
A fused sentence is a type of run-on sentence in
which two sentences are incorrectly joined without any punctuation between them.
The future tense is a verb form describing an action
or condition that will take place after it is described. An example of the
future tense is will be walking.
Gender is the classification of pronouns (and of a
few nouns, such as man and woman
or rooster and hen) according
to whether they refer to males (masculine gender), females (feminine gender) or
neither (neuter gender).
Gerunds are verb forms ending in –ing that are used as nouns.
Helping or auxiliary verbs are verbs that do not appear alone in sentences but always accompany one or more other verbs. Examples of auxiliary verbs are be, can, have, may, should, and might. Auxiliary verbs combine with basic forms of verbs, present participles, and past participles to form verb phrases. Back to top
The imperative mood is the manner of expressing the
action of a verb used for requests and commands.
Imperative sentences are sentences that give orders. Back to top
The indefinite articles are a and an.
Indefinite pronouns refer to unspecified people or things. They include words that end in –body, -one, and –thing, such as anybody, anyone, and anything. Back to top
Independent clauses are clauses (groups of words containing subjects and predicates) that can stand alone as sentences. Back to top
The indicative mood is the manner of expressing the action of a verb used to state facts or ask questions about them. Most sentences are in the indicative mood. Back to top
Indirect objects are objects of verbs that can be changed into phrases beginning with the prepositions to and for. To find an indirect object, ask the question “To or for whom or what?” Back to top
An infinitive is the basic form of a verb preceded by the word to. To study is an example of an infinitive. Back to top
Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns. They emphasize or intensify a noun or pronoun in the same sentence. In “She did it herself,” herself is an intensive pronoun. Back to top
Interjections are members of a class of words that express emotions and are unrelated grammatically to the sentences in which they appear. Wow and oh are examples of interjections. Back to top
Interrogative pronouns are pronouns used to ask questions: “Who was that masked man?” “What are you looking for?” Except for that, which is a relative pronoun but not an interrogative one, interrogative pronouns and relative pronouns are identical in form. Back to top
Interrogative sentences are sentences that ask questions. Back to top
Intransitive verbs are verbs that describe actions but are not followed by direct objects or complements. Back to top
Irregular verbs, such as sing or think, are verbs
that do not follow the standard patterns that regular verbs follow. Irregular
verb forms such as sang, sung, and
thought must be memorized.
Linking verbs are words that describe conditions, not actions. The forms of be (such as am, is, and are) are examples of linking verbs. Linking verbs are followed not by objects but by subject complements – words, phrases or clauses that rename or describe subjects. Back to top
A main verb describes an action or condition with reference to a specific subject. Back to top
Masculine gender is the classification of pronouns and a few nouns that refer only to males. The pronoun he refers only to a male person or animal, so it is masculine. Back to top
Mass nouns are words naming things that cannot be counted. Love and sugar are examples of mass nouns. Back to top
Modal auxiliaries are auxiliary verbs such as can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, and would. They are used with the basic forms of other verbs to express writers’ attitudes toward what they are writing. Back to top
Modifiers make words more specific by describing or limiting them in some way. Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers. Back to top
Mood is the use of verbs to indicate a person’s attitude toward what he or she is saying or writing. Back to top
Negatives are words such as no, not, neither, nor, never, none, no one, nothing, barely, hardly, and scarcely. Back to top
Neuter is the classification of a word that is neither masculine nor feminine in gender. It is an example of a pronoun that is neuter in gender. Back to top
Nonrestrictive clauses are clauses (groups of words
containing subjects and predicates) that provide additional details about the
words they modify. These details are not necessary for identification.
Nonrestrictive clauses are marked off by commas from the rest of the sentences
in which they appear. Back
to top
Noun clauses are subordinate clauses (groups of
words containing subjects and predicates) that function as nouns. They appear in
sentences as subjects, objects, and complements, just as other nouns do.
Noun phrases are groups of words that function in
sentences as single nouns do and that do not contain verbs. Typically, a noun
phrase contains a noun and the words that modify it.
Nouns are names. They indicate people (George
Washington, Dracula), places (New
York, Zambia), objects (table,
mountain), and abstract ideas (friendship,
biology).
Number is the classification of words according to
whether they refer to one person or thing or to more than one.
The object case is the class of pronouns that can be
used as objects of verbs or prepositions. Us
is an example of a pronoun in the object case.
Object complements are words that follow direct
objects and provide additional information that describes or clarifies them. In
“We elected Cindy chairperson,” chairperson
is an object complement. Object complements can be nouns or adjectives.
Objects of prepositions are the nouns, pronouns or nounlike elements that end prepositional phrases. Back to top
Ordinal numbers are numbers functioning as adjectives that answer the question “Which one?” Fourth is an example of an ordinal number. Back to top
Parallel items are items in a list or in a pair that
are in the same grammatical form. In “I like swimming and fishing,” swimming
and fishing are parallel. Back
to top
Parts of speech are categories into which words are divided according to the roles they play in sentences. The parts of speech are nouns, articles, pronouns, verbs, verbals, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections. Back to top
The passive voice is a way of expressing an idea in which the target of the action is the subject of the verb. “The stop sign was hit” is in the passive voice. Back to top
Past participles are verb forms that follow the verb have in verb phrases such as have walked. For regular verbs, past participles are identical with the past tense forms (the basic forms plus the ending –d or –ed). Past participles function in sentences as parts of verb phrases or adjectives. Back to top
The past tense is a verb form describing an action or condition that took place before it was described. A regular verb indicates the past tense by adding –ed to the basic form for all persons and both numbers. Back to top
The perfect tenses are verb forms used to describe
how events in the present, past or future continue to be relevant at a later
time. The present perfect is also used to describe events that started in the
past and continue into the present: “Leontyne has shopped at that store since she was a child.” The past perfect
describes an event in the past and shows that it was still relevant at a later
time: ”Marion had already arrived
home when his mother walked in.” The future perfect describes an event in the
future and shows its relevance to another event in the future: “I will
have returned by eleven o’clock.”
Person is the distinction between the speaker (first person), the person or people spoken to (second person), and the person or people spoken about (third person). Back to top
Personal pronouns are pronouns that refer to specific people or things. They have different forms to indicate differences in person, number, gender, and case. I, her, and our are examples of personal pronouns. Back to top
Phrases are combinations of words that belong together because they express a single idea. Back to top
The possessive case is the class of nouns and pronouns that show possession. Mary’s and our are examples of words in the possessive case. Back to top
A predicate is the part of a sentence that says something about the subject. It contains the verb and other words needed to complete its meaning, such as objects, complements, and modifiers. Everything in a sentence that is not part of the complete subject is part of the predicate. Back to top
A predicate adjective is an adjective functioning as a subject complement. A predicate adjective follows a linking verb and describes the subject of the linking verb. Back to top
A prepositional phrase is the combination of a preposition, the noun, pronoun or nounlike element that follows it, and any intervening modifiers. Back to top
Prepositions are words that connect nouns, pronouns and nounlike elements to other words in sentences and indicate the relationship between them. In, from, and between are examples of prepositions. Back to top
Present participles (basic verb forms ending in –ing) appear in sentences as parts of verb phrases or as adjectives. Walking is an example of a present participle. Back to top
The present tense is a verb form describing an action that takes place at the same time as it is being described. In addition, the present tense is used to indicate a time in the future, to describe habitual actions, to tell general truths, to write about books, movies, and other narratives, and to tell stories more vividly. Walks is an example of a verb in the present tense. Back to top
The principal parts of a verb are the basic form, the past tense form, and the past participle. Knowing these forms enables one to create all the other forms. Back to top
The progressive is a verb form which emphasizes that an event being described is in progress. It combines the auxiliary verbs be, have, and will with the present participle (which ends in –ing): am walking, was walking, will be walking, have been walking, had been walking, will have been walking. Back to top
Pronouns are words that replace nouns in sentences. Back to top
Proper adjectives are adjectives formed from proper nouns. American is an example of a proper adjective. Back to top
Proper nouns are nouns that name specific members of a group. Proper nouns are always capitalized. America is an example of a proper noun. Back to top
The reciprocals are the pronouns each other and one another.
They express shared feelings or actions. Back
to top
Reflexive pronouns are pronouns used as objects when subjects both perform the action of verbs and are acted upon. A reflexive pronoun reflects the subject like a mirror. In “I hurt myself,” myself is a reflexive pronoun. Reflexive pronouns can appear in prepositional phrases when they refer to people or things mentioned earlier: “Nora ate by herself.” Back to top
Regular verbs are verbs for which all the forms are predictable once the basic forms are known. Walk is an example of a regular verb. Back to top
A relative clause is a kind of dependent clause that begins with a relative pronoun such as who, which or that. Relative clauses may function in sentences as nouns or adjectives. Back to top
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that incorporates one kind of dependent clause, called a relative clause, into a sentence. The relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, whoever, that, which, what, whatever, and whichever. Back to top
Restrictive clauses are clauses that provide information needed to identify the nouns or noun substitutes they modify. Restrictive clauses are not set off by commas from the sentences in which they appear. Back to top
A run-on sentence is two sentences incorrectly punctuated as a single sentence. Back to top
The sentence is the basic unit of grammar. In writing, each new sentence opens with a capital letter and closes with an end mark, such as a period or a question mark. Sentences contain subjects (that is, they mention someone or something) and predicates (that is, they tell something about their subjects). A sentence expresses a complete idea. Back to top
A sentence fragment appears to be a sentence but is missing a vital sentence element, sometimes a main verb and sometimes both a subject and a verb. When a dependent (subordinate) clause stands alone, it is also a sentence fragment. Back to top
Sequence of order
refers to the time relationships
between verbs, which should reflect the order in which the events described by
the verbs took place. Back
to top
A simple sentence is a sentence consisting of a single independent clause. Back to top
A simple subject is the noun at the heart of a noun phrase that serves as the subject of a sentence. Back to top
A split infinitive is an infinitive in which to and the basic form of the verb are divided by one or more other words. Back to top
A subject mentions a person, place or thing. A subject is almost always found in the first part of a sentence. To find the grammatical subject of a sentence (not what the sentence seems to be about), ask “Who or what?” with the verb. Back to top
The subject case is the class of pronouns that can be used as subjects. We is an example of a pronoun in the subject case. Back to top
A subject complement is a word or phrase that follows a linking verb and renames or describes its subject. A subject complement can be a noun, a pronoun or an adjective. Back to top
The subjunctive mood is the manner of expressing the action of a verb to indicate desires, requests or suggestions. It also indicates imaginary or hypothetical conditions (sometimes called conditions contrary to fact). In the present subjunctive, the verbs appear in their basic forms. In past subjunctive, the verb forms are identical with those in the past tense. Back to top
Subordinate clauses are dependent clauses joined to main (independent) clauses to form complex sentences. Subordinate clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Back to top
Subordinating conjunctions are words that connect
clauses and indicate that one of the two clauses is more important that the
other. After, because, if, since, unless, and
while are some of the subordinating
conjunctions. A subordinating conjunction appears at the beginning or in the
middle of a sentence.
A superlative form of an adjective or adverb, such as largest or most easily, is used to show that one person or thing has more of some quality than two or more others. Back to top
Tenses are verb forms that indicate when actions take place, either in general or in relation to other actions. Examples of tenses are the present tense and the future tense. Back to top
Transitive verbs are verbs that require direct objects to complete their meanings. Back to top
Verb phrases are closely related groups of verb forms that function in sentences the same way single verbs do. Back to top
Verbals are derived from verbs, but they function in sentences as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. Infinitives, gerunds, and participles are verbals. Back to top
Verbs are words that name actions (both physical and mental) and conditions. Back to top
Voice is a way of expressing an idea that indicates whether a subject is acting or is acted upon. Back to top
