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Nouns
Go to The Guide to Grammar and Writing section on Nouns.
Nouns
Nouns are names. They indicate people (George Washington, Dracula), places (New York, Zambia), and other objects (table, mountain). They also refer to a variety of abstract ideas (such as friendship and biology).
One way to tell whether a word is a noun is to put the word the in front of it. If the resulting combination sounds acceptable, the word is a noun. For example, book is a noun because the combination “the book” sounds right. On the other hand, the word asked is not a noun because the combination “the asked” does not sound right. Although this test is not infallible (for example, it works poorly with names of people and places), if you can make up a sentence in which the plus the word makes sense, the word is probably a noun.
Nouns appear in sentences as subjects, objects, and complements. Many nouns have both singular and plural forms (boy is singular, boys plural). Nouns can also be changed slightly to indicate possession, as in the boy’s cap.
Here are some rules that you may find helpful:
nouns as objects of prepositions
words with two acceptable plural forms
Nouns can be classified in various ways. Usually, these classes contrast with one another. For example, common nouns contrast with proper nouns, concrete nouns with abstract nouns, and count nouns with mass nouns. The same noun can belong to several classes. For example, the word butterfly is both a concrete noun and a count noun.
A common noun names any, some or all members of a group: singer, continent, and car are common nouns. Common nouns are not capitalized unless they begin a sentence.
A proper noun names a specific member of a group: Janet, Asia, and Cadillac are proper nouns. Proper nouns are always capitalized.
A concrete noun names something we can perceive with our senses. That is, if it were present, we could see, hear, touch, taste, or smell it. Table, noise, and pineapple are concrete nouns.
An abstract noun names something we cannot perceive with our senses. Democracy, belief, and sadness are abstract nouns.
A count noun names something that can be counted, at least in theory. Dog is a count noun because if we came into a room which contained a certain number of dogs, we could find out how many there were by counting them. Dish, river, and star are other examples of count nouns.
A mass noun names something that cannot be counted, even in theory. Information, music, and water are mass nouns. Mass nouns do not have plurals, and they cannot be used with a or an.
A collective noun names a group considered as a whole. Team, committee, and flock are collective nouns. Unlike mass nouns, collective nouns can be counted, as in “five teams” and “three committees.”
A compound noun is a combination of two or more words to form a new word or phrase that functions as a single noun. Proper names are good examples of compound nouns: George Washington, for example, refers to a single person even though two nouns are involved. Some compounds are written as one word (cowboy, mailbox), some with hyphens (eye-opener, mother-in-law), and some as two words (pogo stick, ice cream). Dictionaries sometimes vary in their recommendations about how to write compounds.
Often, the role a noun plays in a sentence can also be played by a phrase consisting of a noun and some additional, closely related words. These additional words extend the noun’s meaning in various ways. For example, here are three ways the single noun clowns could be expanded.
The clowns (definite article + noun)
The funny clowns. (definite article + adjective + noun)
The clowns in the circus. (definite article + noun = prepositional phrase)
Each of these noun phrases might occur in a sentence anywhere the single noun clowns might occur. For example, in the following sentence a noun is the subject:
noun
Clowns are funny.
However, in the sentence below a noun phrase plays the same role:
noun
phrase
The clowns in this circus are funny.
In the following sentence clowns is the direct object:
noun
Children enjoy clowns.
But in the sentence below a noun phrase is the direct object:
noun phrase
The children enjoyed the noisy clowns.
In another kind of noun phrase one noun modifies another, as in department store and silver dollar. The first noun in this type of combination is being used as an adjective. Noun phrases of this type are sometimes categorized as compound nouns.
Using phrases instead of single nouns can make sentences more specific and more interesting. Consider the following sentence:
Chicks were released from a box.
It doesn’t say much, does it? Expanding this basic sentence results in sentences like these:
Now, try writing some sentences of your own. Use the nouns in the groups below as the basis for interesting sentences:
Sometimes an entire clause can act as a noun. (Remember, a clause is a group of related words that includes both a subject and a predicate.) A single noun is the direct object in the following sentence.
Many Americans like baseball.
But in the next sentence, which follows the same pattern, a noun clause is the direct object:
Many Americans think that baseball was invented by Abner Doubleday in Cooperstown, NY, in 1839.
Unlike a noun phrase, a noun clause does not necessarily contain a noun; it just functions as a noun. Consider the following sentence:
They ate whatever they could find.
“Whatever they could find” is a noun clause. It functions as a noun (like the noun cheese in the sentence “They ate cheese.”), but it does not contain a single noun.
Nouns can function in sentences as subjects, objects, complements, and appositives.
In most sentences, a noun or noun phrase functions as the subject. Bear in mind that in grammar books, subject means the grammatical subject, not what the sentence seems to be about. Consider the following sentence:
On rainy days the children played checkers.
Here, the grammatical subject is children because they are performing the action of the verb played, not checkers (which is the direct object) or rainy days or anything else the sentence seems to be about. An easy way to find the grammatical subject is to ask a question consisting of the phrase “who or what” and the verb. In other words, for this sentence ask the question “Who or what played?” The answer is children, the grammatical subject.
The noun or noun phrase serving as a subject usually appears before the verb. The following sentences are in this very common pattern:
noun verb
Mary won the race.
noun phrase verb
The president resigned.
noun phrase verb
The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog.
A noun phrase functioning as the subject of a verb is called the complete subject. In the following sentence the noun phrase “the tall, skinny boy in the yellow cap” is the complete subject of the verb broke:
The tall, skinny boy in the yellow cap broke the window.
Of all the words in the noun phrase “The tall, skinny boy in the yellow cap” the most important is boy, the noun itself. The other words all modify this noun in some way. The noun at the heart of a noun phrase is called the simple subject. The simple subject is the one-word answer to the question formed by adding “who or what” to the verb.
The simple subject never appears in a prepositional phrase. Therefore, when looking for a subject, first cross out all the prepositional phrases to make things clearer. This approach would help you locate the subject in the following sentence:
The owner of the car is my brother.
“Of the car” is a prepositional phrase, so it cannot contain the subject. Here is what remains after the prepositional phrase is eliminated:
The owner of the car is my brother.
Now it is much clearer that the subject of this sentence is owner.
Often the answer to the question formed by asking “who or what” with the verb is more than one person or thing. Look at the following sentence:
verb
Olaf and Sarah live in Cleveland.
Here, the answer to the question “Who or what live?” is “Olaf and Sarah.” This is called a compound subject. It contains two nouns, Olaf and Sarah, which are both subjects of the verb live.
Nouns often function as objects. They may be objects of verbs or of prepositions. Objects of verbs are of two kinds, direct and indirect. Object complements provide additional information about direct objects. Like the subjects of sentences, objects of verbs and object complements are never found in prepositional phrases.
A very common sentence pattern consists of a noun, an action verb, and another noun, in that order:
noun
verb noun
Elliott kissed Olivia.
noun phrase verb
noun phrase
The captain sank the ship.
If a sentence contains only one object, it will always be a direct object. You can locate direct objects by asking a questions beginning with the verb and followed by “whom or what?” In the first example, if you ask “Kissed whom or what? The answer will be Olivia. In the second sentence, if you ask “Sank whom or what?” the answer is the ship. Olivia and ship are therefore direct objects. A traditional definition is that a direct object names the person, thing, or idea directly acted upon by the action of the verb.
Sometimes an action verb is followed by more than one object. Look at the following sentence:
Ricardo bought his little brother an ice cream soda.
Both brother and soda are objects of the verb bought. What Ricardo really bought is an ice cream soda. Soda answers the question “Bought whom or what?” so it is the direct object. But he bought the soda for his little brother. Brother is the indirect object. An indirect object can always be changed into a phrase beginning with the prepositions to or for. To find an indirect object, ask the question “To or for whom or what?”
Compare the following pairs of sentences:
The librarian gave Bob a book.
The Liberian gave a book to Bob.
“Gave Bob a book” means the same as “gave a book to Bob.” The answer to the question “To or for whom or what?” is “to Bob,” so Bob is the indirect object in the first sentence.
indirect
object
Victor made his father a cup of coffee.
Victor made a cup of coffee for his father.
The object father and the phrase “for his father” mean the same thing. The answer to the question “To or for whom or what?” is father. Father is therefore the indirect object in the first sentence of this pair.
When a sentence contains an indirect object and a direct object, the indirect object always comes first.
Nouns as objects of
prepositions
In the phrases “to Bob” and “for his father,” the words to and for are prepositions. A noun or noun phrase often follows a preposition to form a prepositional phrase. In a prepositional phrase, the noun is called the object of the preposition. The preposition is underlined in each of the following phrases:
noun
noun
noun phrase
at home in bed on the kitchen table
Prepositional phrases usually function in sentences as adjectives or adverbs.
Complement as a grammatical term means a word (or phrase) that completes the meaning of another word. That is, it clarifies the first word or adds to it in some way. This is indicated by the spelling “complement,” which suggests the idea “complete.”
The following
sentence contains a subject complement:
subject complement
Greg is the chairperson.
Greg is the
subject, which we can verify by asking the question “Who or what is?”
(Answer: Greg.) But the verb is describes not an action but a condition.
It tells not what Greg is doing but what his position on the committee is. This
kind of verb is called a linking verb. Linking verbs are followed not by objects
but by subject complements, words that provide more information about subjects.
An object complement follows a direct object and provides additional information that describes or clarifies it. You can find it by asking a question that combines the verb and the direct object with “what?” Look at the following example:
direct object object complement
She considers her college courses an excellent investment.
The noun courses is the direct object of the verb considers (“Considers whom or what?” Answer: courses.) Now if you ask “Considers courses what?” the answer is investment – the object complement.
When an object complement appears in a sentence, it always follows the direct object:
direct object object
complement
We elected Vinnie chairperson.
direct object object
complement
I consider Felshia my best friend.
Sometimes a noun or noun phrase immediately follows another noun and renames or identifies the same person or thing. This second noun is an appositive. Look at the following example:
noun
appositive
Gordon, Rick’s father, works in a bank.
The noun Gordon and the noun phrase Rick’s
father refer to the same person. In fact, this sentence is a shortened
version of another sentence:
Gordon, who is Rick’s father, works in a bank.
Appositives differ from subject complements and object complements in that appositives can be turned into clauses beginning “who or which is (or are).” An appositive is usually set off from the rest of the sentence by commas, as in the example above. Sometimes, however, a dash or a pair of dashes is used instead, as in this sentence:
My favorite comedians are the Three Stooges – Curly, Moe, and Larry.
When an appositive provides only additional information and is not needed to identify the first noun, it must be marked off from the rest of the sentence either by commas or by dashes. However, sometimes the first noun is unclear without an appositive to help identify the person or thing referred to:
My sister Sharon is the coach.
The noun Sharon is an appositive because it helps to identify “My sister” (“My sister who is Sharon”). It is not marked off by commas because without it, it might be impossible to say which of the speaker’s sisters is meant.
Nouns can be either singular or plural. That is, they can refer to one thing or to more than one.
Changing a noun from its singular form to its plural form is usually simple. The majority of nouns add –s to the singular to form the plural, as in the following examples:
boy boys
table tables
sorrow sorrows
Some nouns, however, form the plural by adding –es to the singular. Nouns ending in ch, sh, ss, x, and z form their plurals in this way:
church churches
dish dishes
kiss kisses
box boxes
waltz waltzes
An important additional rule concerns nouns ending in y. If these nouns end in a consonant followed by a y, they form the plural by changing the y to i and adding –es:
company companies
family families
story stories
But if a vowel comes immediately before the final y, an –s is added and the y is unchanged:
day days
toy toys
journey journeys
Several categories of nouns have plurals that do not follow these rules. The explanations for irregular plurals are historical: some of the irregular plurals have come down from earlier stages of the English language and others were borrowed from foreign languages. Some nouns, for example, form plurals by changing vowels within the word, as in foot, feet, and mouse, mice. Some make no change at all as in fish (singular) and fish (plural) or moose (singular) and moose (plural). Some nouns, such as scissors and trousers, have no singular forms. Nouns ending in o add –s or –es, as in solo, solos but hero, heroes.
Nouns borrowed from foreign languages sometimes form regular English plurals, as in stadium, stadiums. Some form the same kind of plurals, they did in the foreign language, as in datum, data. Some nouns have both kinds of plurals; for example, index sometimes has its original Latin plural, indices, as well as the plural form indexes.
Some words that have two acceptable plural forms are listed below:
Words with two acceptable plural
forms
Singular Alternative Plurals
antenna antennae, antennas
apparatus apparatus, apparatuses
appendix appendices, appendixes
beau beaux, beaus
cargo cargoes, cargos
criterion criteria, criterions
curriculum curricula, curriculums
formula formulae, formulas
fungus fungi, funguses
index indices, indexes
medium media, mediums
memorandum memoranda, memorandums
radius radii, radiuses
scarf scarfs, scarves
tornado tornadoes, tornados
vertebra vertebrae, vertebras
volcano volcanoes, volcanos
wharf wharfs, wharves
zero zeroes, zeros
Occasionally, alternative plural forms of the same word
have different meanings. For example, antennas are radio and television
aerials, but antennae are the movable parts found on the heads of
insects.
The only sure solution to the problem of forming plurals is to look up doubtful words in the dictionary. However, the following list of common irregular plurals should help:
Singular Plural
addendum addenda
alumna alumnae
alumnus alumni
analysis analyses
child children
crisis crises
datum data
deer deer
elf
elves
foot
feet
goose geese
hero heroes
leaf leaves
life lives
loaf loaves
louse lice
mouse mice
mosquito mosquitoes
oasis oases
ox oxen
parenthesis parentheses
phenomenon phenomena
potato potatoes
psychosis psychoses
quiz quizzes
self selves
series series
sheep sheep
species species
stimulus stimuli
thief thieves
thesis theses
tomato tomatoes
tooth teeth
wife wives
wolf wolves
woman women
yourself yourselves
Note that media and data are both plural forms. Media should be used with plural forms of verbs, as in “The mass media have a great deal of influence,” but data is often treated as a singular noun (“the data is” instead of “the data are”).
To form the plural of compound nouns, make the final noun plural unless the first noun is plainly the more important of the two. Here are some examples of plural compound nouns:
snowballs
handfuls
police officers
insurance policies
but
sisters-in-law
The word case refers o the forms of nouns and pronouns that indicate their functions in sentences. In English, nouns have only two sets of forms: one for the possessive case and one for all other cases. The possessive case indicates various kinds of possession.
Often one noun names a thing that belongs (in some sense) to someone or something. For example, the phrase “the man’s hat” is made up of a noun phrase, “the man’s,” and a noun, hat. Here the hat belongs to the man. Other noun phrases indicating possession follow the same pattern: the second noun belongs to the first one. In these phrases, the first noun is always the one in possessive form – never the second noun. A good way to get this right is to look at the second noun and ask yourself “To whom or what does it belong?” The noun that answers this question must be in the possessive form.
Bear in mind that possession does not necessarily indicate ownership. In “the man’s hat” it does. But the noun man in “the man’s head” is also in possessive form. A man’s head belongs to him, of course, but he does not own it in the same way he owns his hat. Or take the phrase “a week’s pay.” It means “the pay someone earns in a week.” Here the pay belongs to the week only in a specialized sense. Other phrases indicating time follow the same pattern:
this fall’s fashion
today’s prices
Friday’s soccer game
The form of the possessive depends on whether or not the noun naming the possessor ends in s. If that noun ends in any letter but s, add ‘s to form the possessive:
author author’s book
city the city’s finances
woman the woman’s job
If the noun already ends in s, determine whether it is singular or plural. If a noun that ends in s is singular, add ‘s:
James James’s mother
boss boss’s daughter
class class’s reunion
Possession can also be indicated by a form using the preposition of. The last three possessives above, for example, could be expressed “the mother of James,” “the daughter of the boss,” and “the reunion of our class.” Both ways of expressing the possessive are very common.
If a noun that ends in s is plural, add only an apostrophe to make it possessive.
boys the boys’ books
bosses the bosses’ schedules
ships the ships’ captain
When using a noun that is both plural and possessive, think of the plural form first and the possessive form second. This helps with nouns that end in y, such as company. Compare these four forms of the word:
the company (singular)
the company’s schedule (singular and possessive)
the companies (plural)
the companies’ schedule (plural and possessive)
or
the companies’ schedules (plural and possessive)
Notice that changing the word schedule from singular to plural does not change the form of the possessive. “The companies’ schedule” refers to a schedule shared by several companies, but “the companies’ schedules” means that the companies have separate schedules.
Remember, only the noun naming the possessor is in the possessive form. To check back, look immediately to the left of the apostrophe – the word to the left of the apostrophe should be the answer to the question “To whom or what does the next noun belong?”
Nouns name people, objects, and ideas
Nouns can be categorized as common nouns, proper nouns, concrete nouns, abstract nouns, count nouns, mass nouns, collective nouns, and compound nouns
Noun phrases are made up of nouns and the words that describe them
Noun clauses are groups of words that include subjects and predicates and that function in sentences as nouns.
A sentence’s subject can be located by answering a question made up of “Who or what?” with the sentence’s verb.
A complete subject consists of a simple subject and its modifiers.
A compound subject includes more than one noun.
Nouns can function as direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions.
Nouns can also function as subject complements and as
object complements.
Appositives are nouns or noun phrases that immediately follow other nouns and rename them or identify them.
Most nouns form their plurals by adding –s. The plural of a word ending in ch, sh, ss, x, or z is formed by adding –es.
The plural of a noun ending in y is formed by changing the y to i and adding –es unless a vowel preceded the y, when only –s is added.
The possessive of a singular noun is formed by adding an apostrophe and an s; the possessive of a singular noun is formed by adding an apostrophe and an s; the possessive of a plural noun is formed by adding an apostrophe except when the plural noun does not end in s, when both and apostrophe and an s are added.